H4. Etruscan is known to have many G. loans, & the oddities there often match L. (very few due to internal Et. changes). In https://www.academia.edu/168297982 I discussed many, so only a summary here:
L. Vertimnus / Vertumnus / Vortumnus >> Et. Voltumna / Veltha (r \ l)
G. Túndaros, Tundáreos >> Et. Tuntle (r \ l)
G. Kádmīlos \ Kadmîlos \ Kasmîlos ‘Hermes / the son or servant in the Cabiri’ >> Et. Catmite ‘Ganymede’, Latin camillus \ casmīlus ‘noble youth employed in the sacrifices of the Flamen Dialis’ (l > δ \ l > s \ l ?)
G. Minṓ-tauros, *Tauro-Minōs or *Teuro-Minēs >> Et. Theurumines (likely showing 'man-bull', 'bull-man', if rel. Minyes, G. Minúes, which could come from pl. *Manuh-es < *mH2an-us-es ‘the Men’)
G. Dromios 'god of the race-course' (Hermes, in Crete) >> Et. Turmś 'Hermes'
G. Poluxénē >> Et. Phulsphna (uk(W) (as in LB); later G. merged uKW) > uK)
G. Ī́karos >> Et. Vikare 'Icarus' (like LA -e, LB -o in names?)
Gr. khálups ‘hardened iron / steel’, *khal(u)khos 'bronze' >> Et. Chaluchasu ‘Talos, the man of bronze from Crete'
G. palámē ‘palm / hand / works of the hand / (work of) art / device / cunning’, *ptalámē-mēdēs ‘one who thinks up devices’ >> Et. Talmithe, Palmithe ‘Palamedes, Greek who fought in Trojan War, an inventor’
*H1lewdh-us-iH2 f. > *elewthwiya: > Cr. Eleúthuiā, *elewthyiya > G. Eleuthíā, *elewthwiya > *eleythwiya > Eleíthuia, etc., *etheuthwa >> Et. Ethausva 'goddess of childbirth'
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*dhwrenH1- > S. dhvraṇati ‘sound’, dhvánati ‘roar / make a sound/noise’, dhvāntá- ‘a kind of wind’; *dhwren-dhrenH1- > *dhwen-dhreH1n- > G. pemphrēdṓn, tenthrēdṓn ‘a kind of wasp that makes its home in the earth’ (likely ‘cicada’), *tenthēdṓn > *tīthōn / *tinthōn ‘cicada’ >> Tīthōnós >> Et. Tinthun
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I also covered 2 others in an unpublished draft:
Etruscan Munθuχ & Turnu, making music
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Dominique Briquel in https://www.academia.edu/75840534 repeats the common claim, completely unproven & unsupported, that Etruscan Munθuχ means ‘‘the one who adorns’’. She is often depicted as a woman holding an alabastron (containing perfume), so the idea is it came from Latin mundus 'clean, pure; nice, fine, elegant; decorated, adorned; world' (in the last sense a calque of Greek kósmos). Though foreign d, t, th are often changed in Etruscan, I highly doubt this idea makes sense of all images. In the same link, Munθχ is shown holding a flute in each hand, across from Turnu holding a lyre. There is no reason for this if her only purpose was to perfume & beautify, & names in myths often only describe the function of those named. This double use of instruments matches the Greek Muses, who sometimes are shown, like "Muse standing and holding an alabastron and lyre" ( https://www.avi.unibas.ch/DB/searchform.html?ID=2009 ).
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This also shows Aphrodite & Adonis, & the Muse Clio is sometimes associated with them, sometimes with a lyre. Though lost versions of myths often exist, any group of muses could have been used for a love scene (or just to depict the story being told), so this is plenty of support to show that Proto-Greek *monthya \ *manthya 'muse' existed ( <- μανθάνω < *m(e)ndh- 'know, learn, understand, teach'). It is likely that some unattested word like *monthakhos 'teaching' is the source. Many such odd, but clearly Greek, loans exist. I think the differences from attested Greek can be explained by dialects from Crete https://www.academia.edu/168297982 . Since some of these words have palatalized *t > *ts > th, it could also be that some other *montya 'muse' existed with *ty > *ts > th instead, maybe rel. *mH2n-ti-s 'seer' (some G. dia. had syllabic *n > o; *Hn > *HVn).
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The other Muse, Turnu, is unlikely to have anything to do with Turan (Aphrodite, Venus), but might be < *θρωνώ, a fem. form from Lac. θρῶναξ 'drone' < PIE *dhroH3n- \ *dhrwen- 'make noise'. This also would be related to :
*dhwrenH1- > S. dhvraṇati ‘sound’, dhvánati ‘roar / make a sound/noise’, dhvāntá- ‘a kind of wind’; *dhwren-dhrenH1- > *dhwen-dhreH1n-on- > [n-dsm.] G. pemphrēdṓn 'a kind of wasp that makes its nest in hollow oaks', tenthrēdṓn ‘a kind of wasp that makes its home in the earth’ (likely ‘cicada’), *tenthēdṓn > *tinthōn \ *tīthōn ‘cicada’ >> Tīthōnós, Etruscan Tinthun
In Tīthōnós vs. Tinthun, Etruscan again provides valuable evidence in a loan of the older Greek form (here with n-n > 0-n dissimilation). Indeed, many loans often preserve the older sounds better than the later native word.
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Also, Lemnian contains a word naphoth, apparently a loan << Italic:
*nepōts > L. nepōs ‘grandson / nephew’ >> Et. nefts, Lem. naphoth
L. pro(:)nepōs >> *pronefoths > *promfoths > Et. prumat(h)(s) \ prumts ‘great-nephew / g-grandson’
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One cognate changes in the same way (-oth, -ath) clearly shows that both sets came from Latin or other Italic before extensive changes in Et. reducing V's. Optional retention of -ōt- as -ath- in Et., > -oth- in Lem., p > p / ph / f, show a common origin, with no other nearby IE having the same word. The simplest way for this to work, consistent with my other claims, is that a group of Etruscans lived on Crete, one later going north to Lemnos, the other (returning?) to Italy.
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H5. o > a
This is found in Macedonian (whether a G. dia. or not, most words match G. ones). In G. môkos 'mockery', L. maccus 'a buffoon', *o: > *a: is also likely (then opt. V:C > VCC, as in Juppiter, etc.).
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H6. e \ a
For *ele-? > NG Cretan ἐλαίτρινος >> L. alaternus ‘buckthorn’, *ela- \ *ala- > Itn. ilátro, Sic. alastra ‘broom’, etc., I think *H2al-H1-tlo- 'sharp thorn' > G. *aletl- might fit best. The opt. V-asm. as in megatho- \ megetho-, etc.
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H7. Though it would look as if PIE *H2piso-m 'pear' existed, Wigman mentioned it could be rel. Shina pisō ‘small pear’, Burushaski pheṣo (these 2 languages spoken near each other, 1 certainly a loan), Khinalug bzɨ ‘pear’. A *Hapis(V) might fit as well.
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H8. Wigman treats G. ὑάκινθος ‘hyacinth’ >> L. vaccīnium ‘whortleberry, bilberry’ (both blue/purple), maybe < *wak- rel. Cretan Βάκινθος ‘name of a month’, Arg. ϝάκινθος ‘name of a Laconic festival’. Without knowing its original meaning, I can only say it might be < *wakninth-, *waH2no- 'blue' ( https://www.academia.edu/170903084 ). This allows n-n dsm. of *wakninth- > *wakinth-, but *wakninth- > *wakkinth-yo-? in L. The varying suffixes might show that -inthos & *-inthyos > -issos, etc.
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H9. Since PIE *gli(H1) -> R. glëkъ 'mucus, lymph', the very similar G. γλάμων \ γλαμυρός 'bleary-eyed', γλαμός 'mucus', γλάμη >> L. glā̆mae \ grām(i)ae p. ‘eye rheum’, grammōsus aj. (Hsx. γλάμπτειν 'to be dirty' might show *my > mpt (like khrimpt-?)) might be contaminated by G. lḗmē \ λήμη 'a humour that gathers in the corner of the eye, rheum', L. lāma 'marsh, mud'.
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EIther *en-glaH2-mo- or *en-gleH1-mo- > Al. nglomë \ ngjomë ‘humid, moist', so it provides no further ev. Wigman mentioned another group, which would look like *gWr(o)mz- > Go. qrammiþa ‘moisture’, Li. grim̃zti, R. grjáznut’ ‘to sink into something sticky, boggy’. Since no *z not next to *b\d\g is known in PIE, I say that it came from *-zdm- ( > *-zm- \ *-mz-), rel. Slavic *grVměždžь ‘pus in the eye’ (if < *gWrmzd- with met.; likely also *gWrozdm- > Go. qrammiþa, *gWrzdm- > BS *grizm-, etc.).
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H10. u \ 0 by P
The need for G. *καύπηλος > κάπηλος >> L. caupō (instead of L. >> G. or ? >> L, G) is seen in many G. words with u \ 0, often by P (otherwise, Cu) :
G. thalúptō \ thálpō ‘warm up / heat’, thalukrós ‘hot / glowing’
G. dáphnē, Perg. láphnē, Thes. daúkhna- \ δαύχνα-
G. korúdūlis \ kordū́lē ‘club / cudgel'
*H3owi-selpo- ‘sheep oil’ > *owiseupo- > G. oísupos \ oispṓtē ‘lanolin’ (lC > uC as in Cretan)
*melo-wokW-s > G. mélops ‘sweet sound / good singer’, *melup- > mélpō ‘celebrate with song & dance’, melpḗtōr ‘singer’
G. *καύπηλος > κάπηλος ‘huckster, innkeeper’, L. caupō, -nis g. ‘id.; trader’
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If rel. Li. kaũpas 'heap', maybe 'heap (of things) > possessing, rich, trader'. The alt. of w \ H3 ( https://www.academia.edu/128170887 ) also allows *koH3p- > Li. kuopiù, kuõpti 'heap or draw earth around plants', etc.
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H11. G. Kúklōps 'cyclops' >> L. coc(u)les ‘one-eyed’, coclitis g.
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https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cocles Possibly related to Ancient Greek Κύκλωψ (Kúklōps, “cyclops”).
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If a loan, it would be from a dialect preserving *kWokWlo- 'wheel, round' before most *o > u between W's, or sonorant and W, or sonorant and P, etc. There are other variants within Greek with o vs. u, but there is no known Greek dia. with *koklo-, etc.
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Also, why -ps > *-ts > -s? In https://www.academia.edu/168297982 I said that Etruscan Vilates is apparently the gen. of *Vile(ts) not expected **Vileus (*Wīleús > G. Oīleús). The source was the Messapians, who had names of men with -et- (Dazet, older gen. *Dazet-as > Daštas). I say this is because they spoke a dialect of Greek with Cretan features, unlike standard theories ( https://www.academia.edu/115992490 ). The Messapians, said to have come from Crete in ancient sources, provide the needed link for Etruscan loans with odd features. If it is clear that *-ps > *-ts in Etruscan, why not also in Latin? The match of Kúklōps & *Koklots would be quite good, esp. with no other IE source, and many other Greek words from myths (lumpa, Pollux, etc.).
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These include r / l, o > a, ph > b, which I have described in Cretan before. The source was certainly the Messapians, who spoke a dialect of Greek, unlike standard theories ( https://www.academia.edu/115992490 ).
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H12. Wigman also considered G. ἄλειφα(ρ) ‘unguent, oil’, ἀλοιφή ‘anointing; ointment, grease' >> L. adeps ‘fat, lard’, *aleps > Logudorese *alibe- > abile, MFrench auve ‘lard’. However, Witczak has related several of these to a PIE root *H2ad- 'thick / full / fat', with details in https://www.academia.edu/121891631 , seen in:
*H2ad-ro- > G. hadrós ‘thick/stout/full / fat (of animals)’
*H2ad-H3op-s > L. adeps ‘lard’
*H2ad-H3op-ko- > *adepok ? > Ar. atok’ ‘full / fat’
*H2ad-H3op-uko- > Rushani aðawog ‘piece of lard’
*H2ad(e)tyo-? > Proto-Tocharian *ātsätse > TA ātsäts, TB ātstse ‘thick’
*H2ad()- > TA āt-klum ‘thickened (with/like sticky rice)’ or ‘containing thickened rice’?; with -klum from PT *kluw, TA klu ‘rice’ << Old Chinese *gləwʔ ‘rice(-paddy)’ (Adams)
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H13. In https://www.academia.edu/170829642 there is a small chance that plumbum is a loan:
*molHo- > S. mála- ‘dirt / filth’
*mHol- / *bhHol- -> G. molū́nō \ pholū́nō ‘soil/defile/debauch / stain/pollute / dye'
*mHolu- 'dark' + *-mldho- 'metal' > *mHolumdho-s > G. *molumdo-s \ *pholumdo-s 'lead' > mólubdos >> L. plumbum
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H14. Though not certain, the alt. of r \ l, th \ d, etc., above might allow:
G. θάπτω 'bury', *thaphthro- 'burying, digging (animal)' >> L. talpa ‘mole’, darpus '?', *darbon- > OProvencal darbon, etc. ‘mole’
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I. Of course, the reverse must be true as well, & any Italic loans >> Greek should be looked for. The source of G. μάκαρ(ς) \ mákar(s) 'blessed, happy (of the gods & the blessed dead); 'blessed, fortunate, wealthy (of men)' is not clear. Some say it's related to G. μακρός 'long; tall, high; great' (as in 'great > blessed'; even 'short > jolly, happy' is known for E. merry). If so, why the very odd (for Greek) ending -ars? The cognate Latin macer '*tall > lean' had changes *makros > *makrs > *makərs > *makərr which would match mákar(s) (even for -rs vs. -r ( < *-rr) if due to sandhi).
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J. PIE *sweidos- 'shining thing' > L. sīdus nu., sīderis 'group of stars; a star' and Greek σίδηρος \ sídēros ‘iron, steel’, Dor. sídāros could be related ('shine' -> 'metal' is common in IE). Maybe also Lithuanian sidãbras 'silver' & Slavic *sьrebro (*sw > s in some, Li. sesuõ 'sister' < *swesorH). There is no *-b(h)ro- ending in IE that could produce -āros vs. *-abros, but *-a(:)brum was common in Latin words for objects, tools, etc. This came from *-(V)H-dhrom (likely < *-trom with "pre-aspiration"), & no other branch but Italic had the change. This allows *swidadhro- > *swidabro- > sidãbras, *swidadhro- > *swidadro- > sídāros (d-d dsm.). Italic as the source might be due to historical reasons now unknown, esp. if they lived on or near Crete (center of much trade).
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K. If L. salīva 'spittle, saliva' >> *siwalo- > G. síalon ‘spittle, slobber, saliva’ (with met.), then the need for *siwalo- > *siwalo- > LA si+au+re 'fattened?', LB si-ha-ro, G. síalos ‘*fat/grease > fat pig’; síelon, Ion. síalon ‘saliva / slobber’ would show the timing. LA si+au+re appears next to the logogram for 'pig' & likely shows the sign AU used for WA also (as above, NE \ EN).
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L. PIE *twi(s)-tlo-s 'standing on end (of hair, 1st from fright)' ?? > L. titulus 'title of a book' (originally an appendix to the scroll), G. síllubos ‘strip of parchment or paper attached to scrolls’. This shows common ti- > si-; some Italic seems to have *tl > ll (some claim after short V, etc.), but dsm. of t-tl > t-ll before ti- > si- would also work.
An older meaning 'fringe (of hair)' seems needed for G. síllubon 'an edible thistle', sílluba p. ‘fringes, tassels’, silléa 'hair growth'. From Beekes, "Fur.: 67 compares Lat. titulus, originally an appendix to the scroll, and reconstructs *tit(o)l-ob’- > sisl-ub-".
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M. G. sésīlos ‘slug’ & Lac. sémelos ‘snail with a spiral shell’, semeloirídai p. 'slugs?; those w/o shells' might be <- 'lazy'. TB ṣäm- ‘sit; remain, etc.' < *sed-m-? might show the needed root for one, & L. sessīlis (<- sedēre 'to sit; sit still; remain, tarry, stay, abide, linger') might show the other (ending for animals like "reptile"). Latin has some words with variants with -m- anyway (prem-, trem-), so Italic *sed-(m-) is not impossible.
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N. In some way, L. simpulum ‘a small ladle’, simpuvium ‘vessel for offering liquids, a sacrificial bowl’, G. símblos ‘beehive, larder, sipús / supúē / sipúē ‘meal-tub; box for keeping flour and bread’, síphnis ‘id.’, sipuḯs ‘jar’, sibaíā ‘wallet’ (see Beekes). If from PIE *siP- ‘drip’, the L. meanings would be older (the rest 'a liquid measure > jar containing one liquid measure').
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O. In *sH2isk-no- > G. iskhnós there is unexpected -kh-, maybe from met. of *H. In *sisku- or *sisko- dsm. > L. siccus 'dry; sober', an older *sikkhos (with the same) would allow a loan >> G. sikkhós ‘disgusted, picky, especially concerning food’ (with 'sober > avoiding drink, unwanted drinks, food, etc.?; less certain relation than those ex. above). A dsm. of s-sk > s-kk is not odd, needed for Latin anyway.
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P. L. pampinus ‘shoot or leaf of a vine’, *(la) ampina\ola\etc. > Sardinian zampina ‘wild grapevine’, Tuscan ámpola \ lampone ‘raspberry’, G. ámpelos \ ἄμπελος ‘grape vine’.
Wigman's mention of Li. pam̃pti ‘to swell, bulge’ seems reasonable based on other IE (*bhuH1- 'swell, grow; plant'). L. would have the p-p dsm. based on internal ev., so likely the donor.
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Q. L. ervum ‘bitter vetch’ >> G. orbo+, ὄροβος ‘bitter vetch’, ἐρέβινθος ‘chickpea’
The PIE *H1orw-, *H1erw- (in Gmc., etc.) require a direction *w > Italic *v adapted as G. b. The VRC > VRVC as in (R).
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R. VRC > VRVC
This change is common in Italic (not Latin), & also in some Greek:
L. ervum ‘bitter vetch’ >> G. orbo+, ὄροβος ‘bitter vetch’, ἐρέβινθος ‘chickpea’
*kelp- > OI cilurnn ‘urn’, W. celwrn, G. kelébē ‘cup / jar’
LA ka-ro-pa3, G. kálpē ‘pitcher’, L. calpar ‘wine cask’, Calpurnius > G. Kal(o)pórnios
LA da-ro-pa, G. terpós \ tarpós \ tárpē \ tarpónē \ dárpē ‘large wicker basket’
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In https://www.reddit.com/r/HistoricalLinguistics/comments/1hzfycl/minoan_cups_jars_linear_a/ I described more ev.:
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That draft has many other LA signs that come from Greek words. Sticking to vessels, Chiapello has done more with this. He compared pictures of vessels next to LA words he took as G. ( https://www.academia.edu/90350059 ), finding the same in HT 31 for kálpē : ka-ro-pa3 & qa-pa3 : -bapha. I should also mention Chiapello’s idea ( https://www.academia.edu/99652728 ) that LA da-ro-pa next to an LA logogram *403VAS, which looks like a Minoan basket-shaped vessel, can be explained by da-ro-pa : G. dárpē ‘large wicker basket’. These all have IE cognates :
LA qa-pa3 = *gWapha, G. oxú-bapha / báphion ‘saucer / small vinegar saucer / shallow earthen vessel < *dipping vessel’
*gWabh-ye- > G. báptō ‘dip / dye / draw water by dipping a vessel’, ON kvefja ‘submerge (tr) / sink (intr)’
*kelp- > OIr cilurnn ‘urn’, W. celwrn, G. kelébē ‘cup / jar’
Linear A ka-ro-pa3, G. kálpē ‘pitcher’ >> L. calpar ‘wine cask’, Calpurnius > G. Kal(o)pórnios
LA da-ro-pa, G. terpós \ tarpós \ tárpē \ tarpónē \ dárpē ‘large wicker basket’, Arm. t’arp’ ‘large wicker fishing-basket / creel’, t’arb ‘framework of wooden bars / wicker trellis-work’ from *terp- ‘turn’ (referring to weaving or plaiting)
The spread of dárpē ‘basket’ from Crete might have to do with the basket-shaped vessels known from there. These might just be made for artistry, or could show that baskets were important in sacrifice and/or ritual (as he points out for the scene on the sarcophagus from Aghia Triada) and so kept the shape even when technology had made the use of plant-based objects used to carry bloody objects or liquids unneeded. More in https://www.academia.edu/126883342
When I contacted Chiapello, he did agree with some of my ideas (based on Greek dia. changes found later on Cr.), including support for his Linear A ka-ro-pa3, G. kálpē ‘pitcher’ based on alternation of lC / rC with lVC / rVC (he added L. Calpurnius > G. Kal(o)pórnios, also from a loan cognate with kálpē). There are many more I’ve put up online, incl. :
G. skórodon / skórdon, Alb. hurdhë, Arm. xstor ‘garlic’
? > L. ervum, G. órobos ‘bitter vetch’, orbo-pṓlēs ‘vetch-seller’
*H2albho- > L. albus, Greek alōphós ‘white’, alpho-prósōpos ‘white-faced’
*bher-tro-m > L. ferculum ‘bier / litter’, G. phér(e)tron, Skt. bharítra-m ‘arm’
I also mentioned Chiapello’s (2024) idea that LA ka-u-de-ta is an ethnonym *Kaudētās related to LB ka-u-da, G. Kaûda / Klaûda (compare di-ka-tu ~ di-ka-ta-jo ), L. Gaudos. Another important idea of his is that LA accounting terms came from G. ( https://www.academia.edu/95076672 ), and I’ve added to this: Greek dia-dómata, diadidómenos; Linear A da-du-ma-ta, da-du-mi-ne ( https://www.academia.edu/114620158). His po-to-ku-ro ‘grand total’ is a compound of ku-ro & *proto- ( https://www.academia.edu/69651288 ), but I prefer a simple and close meaning with *panto- > ponto- (with a / o by P, as above) & I also think Linear B ku-su-to-ro-qa ‘total’ (also abbreviations ku-su-to-qa / ku-su-qa), Linear A ku-ro ‘total’ which could be another abbreviation of the same (Whalen 2024e), instead of his taking of ku-ro as a whole word. He also had LA mi-ja-ru ‘honey’, which I’d accept due to *melit-on with Cr. changes of e / a, etc. He has made many other good translations, but I think they could be improved. I’ve talked about this and given some of my own, like LA au-ta-de-po-ni-za as *auta-despotnidza- ‘absolute ruler / queen’.
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S. t \ l \ b
The need for *swidadhro- > *swidabro- > sidãbras, *swidadhro- > *swidadro- > sídāros, etc., requires alt. of b \ d (as in *dh > L. -b- \ -d- \ -l-). Others in G.:
*wekatos ‘to be obeyed / lord’ > Hekatos, fem. Hekátē, *Hekádē > Hekálē, Hekábē / W(h)ekaba
Hekátē, *Hekádē > Hekálē, Hekábē
G. bátrakhos, Pontic bábakos, etc., ‘frog’
*mlad- > G. blábē ‘harm/damage’, *mlad-bhaH2- > blásphēmos ‘speaking ill-omened words / slanderous/blasphemous’
Hal(a)Hto- > S. alāta- ‘fire/coal’, *alada: > G. alábē ‘coals’
With so many ex., there should be no reason to doubt it, but what is the cause? In Italic, at & *ath > *af > ab vary (due to *Ht(h)). It would be very odd for these G. words, all for -at-, etc., to be unrelated in cause. It is possible this came from a group of Italic speakers who retained this alt. even for words in which a did not come from *H (there would be no way for the current speakers to know its old cause). Since also at \ al (Hekátē, *Hekádē > Hekálē, Hekábē), the same change next to a could be at work (see ev. in https://www.academia.edu/40366912 ).
T. (u > i?; which direction?)
G. φρύγω \ phrū́gō ‘to roast, dry, fry’, phruktós 'roasted', m. 'roasted bean; torch, beacon' L. frīgō ‘to roast’
Since ev. from IIr. requires PIE *bhre(i)g- (and met. > *bhregy-; Ir. bra(i)ǰ- 'fry, parch, roast, bake, burn', S. bhrajj-, bhr̥kta- 'roasted, fried') only Italic can be directly from PIE. A loan from Italic > G. would explain *ei > *i:, then *i: > u: by P as in other u \ i alt.:
*siP- ‘drip’ > G. sipuḯs ‘jar’, sipús / supúē / sipúē ‘meal-tub'
*H2ukWno- > OE ofen ‘oven’, Go. auhns, G. ipnós (? S. ukhá- ‘cooking pot’, L. aulla ‘pot’)
*bhlud- > G. phlidáō, phludáō ‘have an excess of moisture / overflow’, TB plätk- ‘arise/swell/overflow’
G. striphnós ‘firm/solid / hard’, struphnós ‘sour/bitter/harsh/astringent’
stiphrós ‘firm/solid / stout/sturdy’, stuphelós ‘hard/rough/harsh/cruel / sour/acid/astringent’
stîphos- ‘body of men in close formation’, stū́phō ‘contract / draw together / be astringent’
